What Is the Main Inference That Can Be Drawn From Voltaireã¢â‚¬â„¢s Book Treatise on Toleration?
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Voltaire's treaty on tolerance is as bright every bit it is educating. In its core message, it has the same stringency and ability today as two and a one-half centuries ago, when he wrote it.
Knowing the upshot of writing or talking freely in an oppressively unified environment (political or religious or both), anyone can imagine the bravery of standing up to the evils of one's own social club, one's own religion. It
"Il faut donc que les hommes commencent par n'être pas fanatiques pour mériter la tolérance."Voltaire's treaty on tolerance is as bright as information technology is educating. In its core message, it has the same stringency and power today as 2 and a one-half centuries ago, when he wrote it.
Knowing the effect of writing or talking freely in an oppressively unified environment (political or religious or both), anyone tin imagine the bravery of standing up to the evils of one'south own lodge, 1's own religion. It is easy enough to criticize other religions and their followers, and the easiest affair in the world to dismiss atheists as lacking depth, imagination and spiritual intelligence, but to stand upwards amongst the people with whom you share a cultural background, and telephone call out to them to be tolerant, respectful and open-minded towards other religions and atheists, when yous accept seen the dangerous furnishings of costless-thinking in courts, in neighbourhoods, in churches, - that requires courage.
Voltaire risked more than than an impolite or insulting respond when he wrote to tell his Catholic countrymen to let their god take intendance of the penalisation of so-called "heretics" if southward/he didn't approve of the kind of worship the protestants had chosen. If god is divine, so Voltaire'south thought, southward/he doesn't need humans to be judges on divine matters. Southward/he is perfectly capable to punish people him/herself, should due south/he really consider that adequate. If southward/he is not divine, it is implicitly understood, people should almost definitely not impale each other because they take different opinions on rituals and theological discourses.
His essay is strictly focused on achieving justice for the family Calas, whose treatment by French justices and priests had shaken Voltaire and the intellectual Paris society to movement into action.
Carefully arguing for tolerance, he takes a theist and monarchist position, and cites from historical sources to point out the evidence for successful tolerance in ancient and contemporary societies. His idea of co-habitation would probably not be plenty for a human rights supporter of today, every bit he clearly grants the dominating faith more than privileges than other lifestyles. Just looking dorsum on two centuries of continued massacres in French republic, a first step towards peaceful respect seems both reasonable and commendable.
Brainy, witty, focused on the issue, Voltaire shows his humanity in his hard work for justice, too often obstructed for reasons of politics or faith. His willingness to speak up and declare solidarity with an oppressed family is nevertheless inspiring, every bit is his irony and delightful prose!
I cartel to claim his arguments are well worth reading, even if you practise not happen to be a theist monarchist. He doesn't believe in the right to absolute, exclusive truth. He believes in open discussion!
A lively case of humanity at work!
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I like this book which has not taken a ride on the misdeeds of faith and beliefs.
Jean Calas was a Protestant merchant in Toulouse who was sentenced to death for the murder of his son. All the evidence pointed to suicide by hanging and Calas was a delicate man who would not accept had the strength to murder his son in this way. Calas was sentenced to be broken at the bike, a particularly barbarous form of execution. Voltaire heard nigh the cause and took up the cause for a An impassioned plea for religious tolerance by Voltaire, triggered past the execution of Jean Calas in Toulouse.
Jean Calas was a Protestant merchant in Toulouse who was sentenced to death for the murder of his son. All the evidence pointed to suicide past hanging and Calas was a delicate human being who would not have had the forcefulness to murder his son in this way. Calas was sentenced to be broken at the bicycle, a particularly barbarous form of execution. Voltaire heard about the cause and took upwardly the crusade for a posthumous pardon and bounty for the remaining family unit. Information technology was a long battle and this treatise is part of the campaign.
The treatise is a run through of recent French history in relation to tolerance and peculiarly the persecution of the Huguenots. Voltaire proceeds to look at Christian history, the early Church Fathers, the Bible, other religions and the ancient Greeks and Romans. Throughout Voltaire emphasises his own Christian credentials every bit a good Catholic; simply his arguments, caustic wit and sheer scepticism indicate to him being afar from religious belief, or equally much as he could be at the fourth dimension. He is essentially a Deist.
Voltaire treats the reader to an entertaining run through some of the battier behavior of the early church and examines the persecution past the Romans to show that this has been exaggerated and most of the time the church went out of its mode to attract persecution. He as well contrasts the bloodthirstiness of the Erstwhile Testament with the more than tolerant approach of the New Testament. Of class Voltaire continues to make the bespeak that if you are right you don't need to persecute, just persuade. He also shows a preference for Eastern religions equally opposed to the Religions of the Book (Judaism, Christianity and Islam).
This is a very humane book, baffled by the inhumanity of the Church and arguing for the toleration and complimentary thought. It feels very modern.
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Jean's eldest son Louis had already converted to Catholicism years before, and the family employed a Cosmic retainer. Nonetheless, the court sided
On March 10, 1762 Jean Calas was tortured and executed for allegedly murdering his son Marc-Antoine. Although Jean was the just fellow member of the family unit executed, his wife, servant, son Paul, and friend M. Gaubert Lavaysse were also implicated in the murder. The Calas affair came to Voltaire's attention because it appeared to exist a instance of religious fanaticism.Jean'due south eldest son Louis had already converted to Catholicism years before, and the family unit employed a Catholic retainer. All the same, the court sided with the crowd and ruled that Jean murdered his Catholic son for heresy. If Jean was required by his Calvinist organized religion to murder his son (as the Catholic prosecutors claimed), why did he employ a Catholic servant? And why would the Catholic retainer agree to murder a young man Catholic?
In all appearances, Marc-Antoine committed suicide. The family members were eating dinner when their son suddenly left the room. His body was found hanging in the front room.
Even before the constabulary stepped in, a crowd of Catholics carried the body abroad and buried in consecrated ground. They began venerating Marc-Antoine every bit a Catholic martyr. The judges in Toulouse could not concord on the case, but they condemned Jean to death anyway. Through a series of authentic and potentially fictional letters, The Calas Affair traces the events leading upwards to and following the death of Marc-Antoine.
Simply it'due south the following Treatise on Tolerance that is arguably more important than the précis of the affair. Hither, Voltaire makes a instance for religious tolerance.
I was surprised by Voltaire' knowledge of the Bible. He clearly followed contemporary Biblical scholarship. Although some people accuse Voltaire of antisemitism, I had the contrary impression. Voltaire condemns the violence of the Old Testament, but he also argues that early Judaism was more tolerant than 18th century Christianity. Voltaire is only intolerant toward Atheists because he assumes that they are necessarily amoral. Voltaire may have exist a Deist and highly critical of faith, just he was influenced past and admired many aspects of the Judeo-Christian tradition. In The Treatise on Tolerance, Voltaire targets particularly the Christian dogmatic tradition for promoting heresy hunting .
Voltaire rightly argues that the aboriginal Romans were by and large tolerant toward different religions. The periods of persecution were the exception to the rule. Y'all would retrieve that a persecuted organized religion such as Christianity would know what persecution feels similar and avoid persecuting others. But Christians of all stripes accept committed numerous atrocities over the centuries.
Voltaire makes it clear that the Gospels do not promote violence and intolerance. In an eye-opening commentary on the Old Attestation, Voltaire demonstrates that the Old Testament God is only concerned about the behavior of the Jewish people. God is not concerned about the behavior of Gentile religions. Finally, God's punishments and rewards are immediate and temporal. Voltaire references Hebrew, questions the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, considers whether Judaism began as semi-polytheistic, and has a detailed noesis of the early ecclesiastical councils – prove that he kept upwardly with contemporary religious scholarship.
Voltaire argues throughout his treatise that fanaticism is not only irrational but as well a violation of true organized religion. Information technology is hypocrisy at its finest. The Treatise on Tolerance is all the more disarming for its simplicity. Today, most people in the West take it for granted that executing perceived heretics is incorrect, but religious bigotry is unfortunately alive and well. 18th century justifications for the persecution of French Protestants (Huguenots) sound eerily familiar.
If much of Voltaire's statement seems obvious to about readers, that's because nosotros have progressed a lot in the past 3 hundred years. It certainly wasn't obvious to many of his contemporaries. In 1572, anywhere between x,000 and 70,000 Huguenots were massacred on St. Bartholomew'due south Day. In the 1700s, when Voltaire wrote The Treatise on Tolerance, Catholics still celebrated the anniversary of the massacre!
The Treatise on Tolerance is a reminder of what prejudice is capable of. While some sections are humorous, it is not a satire. Voltaire cuts to the heart of the matter. This is definitely a work worth revisiting in our increasingly intolerant age.
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While the French Catholics were blessing of this trial or (at best) looking away, one man was disgusted by it all. This man was Voltaire, and he decided to write a treatise to promote religious tolerance. During his stay in England (1726-1728), Voltaire became acquainted with philosopher John Locke. In his Letter on Toleration (1689) Locke argued that no church building could take a legitimate claim to ability. Civilians agreed to a social contract whereby the sovereign would proceeds legislative and executive powers, so civilians only had to comit themselves to the country - churches had no right to claim power over civilians, since this power would exist unfounded.
In the Treatise on Toleration, Voltaire decides to pick another route to toleration. He writes as if he were a Catholic (90% of France were Catholics, then this is the audience he aims at) and from this betoken he argues for toleration for all the religious minorities (especially the Huguenots). He wrote this in a time of heavy persecution by the French churches and a mass exodus of Huguenots to The netherlands and England.
The text itself is not really one whole; each affiliate of the 25 is curt and deals with a unlike subjects. There are some main themes in this treatise, but Voltaire was no philosopher or scientist and this shows in his text. It would accept been better if he picked a construction and fabricated some choices in what to include and what to exclude.
In broad outlines: he uses the Calas execution equally a motivation to write this treatise. Adjacent, he traces the attitude that lead to this particular execution - but more importantly: religious fanaticism in general - to the Reformation. After this looks at the state of religious tolerance in ancient Hellenic republic, the Roman Empire and early Christendom. He concludes that these times saw religious tolerance and that the only intolerance came from christians (present, we would phone call the martyrologies of early Christendom fake news).
Later this brief historical overview, Voltaire states that religious intolerance leads to the abeyance of Reason and to corruption. He so asks the reader this of import question: what does Scripture say about tolerance? He shows that, co-ordinate to books of the Old Testament, the Jews knew long periods of tolerance and according to the New Attestation, the message of Jesus is tolerance - and no coercion. I think this last part is of import, since fanatical christians who see Christ every bit saviour, would do well to ponder this fact. He underlines this of import point with the plea for tolerance of some famous writers (churchfathers, philosophers, etc.).
At this point the book becomes a collection of short statements. He tries to evidence with a dialogue how unreasonable intolerance is and uses a letter, supposedly written past a Jesuit to encourage attacks on not-Jesuits, to show the danger in practise. Besides this, Voltaire reasons from a practical standpoint: the exodus of Huguenots makes Holland and England militarily and economically stronger, so intolerance leads to a weaker nation.
The most important message is contained in chapter 18, which basically summarizes the whole treatise: is intolerance justified? Only to destroy intolerance, co-ordinate to Voltaire. This reminded me of the famous quotation of Karl Raimund Popper, who claimed that nosotros should be "intolerant of intolerance". The hidden message of this chapter is, of course, that the state should actively exterminate religious intolerance and fanaticism (this clearly is Locke's influence on Voltaire).
Voltaire endeavors to establish universal tolerance. Posing as a Catholic, he hoped to convince the Catholic French majority that this was the best choice. I'thousand not in a position to guess if Voltaire succeeded in this, just my approximate is that the horrors of the Terror during the French Revolution were (partly) a reaction to centuries of Catholic persecution, censure and oppression. Intolerant people will reap what they sow.
I'm also not in the position to make claims about the importance and influence of this treatise; equally a book I found it unstructured and at times besides random (as if it lacks a master objective), but as a plea for (religious) tolerance, the contents are not less of import. Information technology looks like Voltaire wanted universal tolerance so bad that he put all the arguments - philosophical, judicial/political, ethical, practical - he could observe into the blender and came up with this treatise.
Equally with all of Voltaire's works (and the works of other contemporaries like Montesquieu and Diderot), this book tin be read in a couple of hours. This will certainly not be a waste of time, because the of import message!
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In any case, tolerance is what we need to fight for.
I don't take much noesis a virtually all the history Voltaire evoqued (where the Romans every bit tolerant every bit he claimed? Voltaire seems to idealise a petty a few historical figures but he does give us examples to support his views on toleran
For a book written more than 250 years ago (1763) Voltaire's Treaty on Tolerance is accurately relevant to today's struggles nearly religion. Or maybe it is that flesh doesn't change nor learn about its mistakes.In whatever case, tolerance is what we need to fight for.
I don't accept much noesis a about all the history Voltaire evoqued (where the Romans as tolerant as he claimed? Voltaire seems to idealise a petty a few historical figures but he does give usa examples to support his views on tolerance, it's important to mind to his message).
This is nigh a book near religions and how men handle it through history. And information technology is a book almost tolerance.
It's brusk and goes direct to the point and to exercise then uses and quotes many historical events as well as words from religious texts because intolerance is often rooted -wrongfully- in struggles about religions.
In curt: we were not meant for hatred, but honey and acceptance. Isn't it what nosotros should all alive by?
That beingness said, Voltaire seems to put accent on Jews, among others, and defend his christianity. Sure, he presents "logical" arguments/thinking but I think he was biased in certain ways. This is not an atheist accept (not that it should exist, only saying) and christianity is the principal anchor to his advocating tolerance.
So I'd say it is an interesting text that should exist read with an open-mind. Similar all of us, Voltaire is not perfect, and a production of his time, merely gives us skilful points and food for thoughts.
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But what does this have to do with things today?
There are a few interesting things that come up to listen when reading Treatise on Toleration. 1. Voltaire wrote Treatise on Toleration in 1762 (first published in 1763) as a critique of religious persecutions in France. Voltaire built on the work of Locke, who, over 70 years before, in his 2nd Treatise on Authorities, had argued for the separation of church and country. Locke's work greatly influenced the American Revolution and the U.Due south. Constitution.
Just what does this have to exercise with things today?
In that location are a few interesting things that come up to mind when reading Treatise on Toleration. 1. Intolerance is rampant in today's club. Too many people want to control the life of others. Their beliefs, their sexual orientation, the way they dress, speak or interact with one another. Finally, and most relevant today, political opinions are being treated like a cult. 2. While superstition is protected by law (as long equally it is claimed to be a religion at least) it does non allow those belonging to ane sect to prosecute others. The difference in eating habits or headgear should not bear upon how you treat people. 3. Information technology as well brings to mind where toleration cannot be applied. When discussing facts, right and wrong, there is no middle footing. All the same, when the facts have been laid out, the ane on the side of the fact should be tolerant towards the i on the opposite side, simply at that place are limits to what length ane must go to explain reality to those who refuse it. Equally the saying goes, you can atomic number 82 the horse to the water, but you lot cannot go far drinkable. Also, y'all may explain a thing to people, but you lot cannot understand information technology for them. four. Finally while many rights have been protected past law, information technology is worth thinking about why such protection is needed and for whom it has been brought about. In the US there are various laws protecting people of colour, women, sexual orientation, children, quondam people, and people with inability. Why did congress need to human action and make laws to protect these groups? The respond is sad and uncomplicated, it is because these groups were persecuted, taken reward of, driveling, and threatened by others in the society nosotros alive in. Equally far as I know, there are no laws specifically protecting white men. Perhaps considering white men have been the aggressor in most cases through the history of the U.s.a.. ...more
He's so smart and well read and human being rightsy simply he also has such a modern sensibility and is regularly witty.
Learned a lot, practiced French vocab, shook my head at human stupidity...
Love my boy Voltaire!
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I of the nearly amazing europeans minds of all times. A masterpiece. Thank you Voltaire
He argues firstly that tolerance is desirable on pragmatic grounds, and that intolerance is dangerous. He then looks at the Former and
When a Protestant begetter is unjustly accused of murdering his ain son to forbid his conversion to Roman Catholicism and brutally executed, the incensed Voltaire leaps to the defense force of his family unit and memory. It was Jean Calas who was the victim of Roman Cosmic discrimination, and Voltaire, too a Catholic, writes against all manifestations of intolerance and fanaticism.He argues firstly that tolerance is desirable on pragmatic grounds, and that intolerance is dangerous. He then looks at the Old and New Testaments, and concludes that "God tolerate[s] other religions", and that it is "better [to] be a martyr than a hangman".
The treatise also contains a number of quotations in favour of tolerance and 2 short anecdotes.
The Calas Affair is non especially interesting equally a theological piece of work, merely his argument on tolerance is thorough and complete.
"The ane sure method of diminishing the number of these lunatics, should in that location be any left, is to expose their mental affliction to the influence of Reason, the one wearisome but infallible route towards enlightenment."
"Let us treat with due reverence those parts of the Scriptures with which our vain, inquisitive minds have difficulty, and non use them equally an excuse for implacable hatreds."
"Yet of all superstitions is non the most dangerous that which demands we detest our neighbour on account of his opinion?"
"These mistakes should... simply become criminal when they threaten to undermine order, and they undermine society whenever they inspire fanaticism."
"To the Bishop of Hippo I would say, 'Monseigneur, you take inverse your stance. Allow me to adhere to your earlier point of view. which, in truth, I think the better ane."
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Voltaire wrote "Treatise on Tolerance" following the trial of Jean Calas, a Protestant executed on claims he murdered his own son to prevent his conversion to Catholicism, a charge that Calas denied. Voltaire'south argument is illustrated in the following passages: "There are about forty millions of inhabitants in Europe who are not members of the Church of Rome; should we say to every one of them, 'Sir, since yous are infall Voltaire's Treatise on Tolerance becomes bestseller following Paris attacks.
Voltaire wrote "Treatise on Tolerance" following the trial of Jean Calas, a Protestant executed on claims he murdered his own son to prevent his conversion to Catholicism, a charge that Calas denied. Voltaire's statement is illustrated in the following passages: "There are near twoscore millions of inhabitants in Europe who are non members of the Church building of Rome; should we say to every ane of them, 'Sir, since you are infallibly damned, I shall neither eat, antipodal, nor have any connections with y'all?'";
Voltaire, who was born in Paris in 1694, won both fame and censure as a prolific writer and pamphleteer. He penned stinging critiques of the Catholic Church and poignantly dedicated freedom of religion and liberty of expression. Voltaire was the most eloquent and tireless abet of the anti-dogmatic movement known as "The Enlightenment." He preached that all are obliged to tolerate each other. His objections to atheism are superficial and he looks on religious beliefs as useful, but not necessarily true. His arguments for religious freedom have get commonplaces in the modern Western globe, even amidst religious laic.
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Perhaps his about stirring observation comes from the precept that intolerance is the enemy of reason. Ardent in its views in support of humanity and humanism, critical of decisions made through narrow-minded passion, and whimsical at key moments, "Treatise" is a tale that holds water centuries later it'south initial publishing and a relic of the shift in homo beingness brought nearly through the enlightenment. Do read. As someone reading through a purely secular lens, information technology'south quite heavy on the religious doctrine, but understandable because the subject matter and inciting incident.
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Although there were some insights in the view of tolerance from the side of a ruling bulk - one of the arguments existence, why be intolerant of those who pose no real threat to your dominion over club - I was most surprised past the large
I started with Voltaire equally a first of a journey through Renaissance writing on tolerance, to see if the old Renaissance writers could help me effigy out if tolerance is maybe just ever to be expected from the blest, independent thinkers within a ruling bulk.Although at that place were some insights in the view of tolerance from the side of a ruling majority - 1 of the arguments being, why be intolerant of those who pose no existent threat to your rule over society - I was most surprised past the large focus on the (Catholic) christian base used to explain the merit of tolerance. It makes me very interested in the question wether the calls for tolerance in other cultures have a similar base in religion.
In any case there is a lot more ground to exist (dis)covered...
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Although the master subject of the volume is the intolerance of a group of catholic fanatics, the overall message is that tolerance is an important office of the ground of what we Written afterwards a mediatic (at the time) trial, where an innocent man was charged and executed for the homicide of his own son due to rumours and religious fanatics, Voltaire uses several examples from the bible to prove that religious intolerance has no sense, either in a evolved society, either in bust of the catholicism.
Although the main field of study of the book is the intolerance of a grouping of cosmic fanatics, the overall message is that tolerance is an important part of the footing of what we expect in our societies, from Voltaire's time to our own. ...more
Between religious intolerance, power of the press, tyranny of the French family, limits of freewill, these letters, beyond the fact that they are written in an older French which is much pleasant to read, testify the reader what 1 man tin can achieve when he sets his mind to it and the limits of the powers of one homo lonely.
Smashing read.
The sad turnout of events for the Calas family allows the reader to reflect on today's French republic and its many traditional characteristics that stalk from its past.Between religious intolerance, ability of the printing, tyranny of the French family, limits of freewill, these letters, across the fact that they are written in an older French which is much pleasant to read, prove the reader what one man can accomplish when he sets his heed to it and the limits of the powers of i man alone.
Swell read.
...moreIn 1694, Age of Enlightenment leader Francois-Marie Arouet, known as Voltaire, was born in Paris. Jesuit-educated, he began writing clever verses by the age of 12. He launched a lifelong, successful playwriting career in 1718, interrupted by imprisonment in the Bastille. Upon a second imprisonment, in which Francois adopted the pen na
Complete works (1880) : https://archive.org/details/oeuvresco...In 1694, Historic period of Enlightenment leader Francois-Marie Arouet, known every bit Voltaire, was born in Paris. Jesuit-educated, he began writing clever verses past the age of 12. He launched a lifelong, successful playwriting career in 1718, interrupted by imprisonment in the Bastille. Upon a second imprisonment, in which Francois adopted the pen name Voltaire, he was released after agreeing to move to London. There he wrote Lettres philosophiques (1733), which galvanized French reform. The book likewise satirized the religious teachings of Rene Descartes and Blaise Pascal, including Pascal's famed "wager" on God. Voltaire wrote: "The interest I accept in assertive a thing is not a proof of the existence of that thing." Voltaire'southward French publisher was sent to the Bastille and Voltaire had to escape from Paris again, as judges sentenced the book to be "torn and burned in the Palace." Voltaire spent a at-home 16 years with his deistic mistress, Madame du Chatelet, in Lorraine. He met the 27 year former married female parent when he was 39. In his memoirs, he wrote: "I found, in 1733, a immature woman who thought as I did, and decided to spend several years in the country, cultivating her heed." He dedicated Traite de metaphysique to her. In it the Deist candidly rejected immortality and questioned conventionalities in God. Information technology was not published until the 1780s. Voltaire continued writing amusing but meaty philosophical plays and histories. After the earthquake that leveled Lisbon in 1755, in which 15,000 people perished and some other xv,000 were wounded, Voltaire wrote Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne (Verse form on the Lisbon Disaster): "But how conceive a God supremely good/ Who heaps his favours on the sons he loves,/ Yet scatters evil with every bit large a hand?"
Voltaire purchased a chateau in Geneva, where, amongst other works, he wrote Candide (1759). To avoid Calvinist persecution, Voltaire moved across the border to Ferney, where the wealthy writer lived for eighteen years until his death. Voltaire began to openly challenge Christianity, calling it "the infamous affair." He wrote Frederick the Neat: "Christianity is the nigh ridiculous, the most absurd, and bloody faith that has always infected the world." Voltaire ended every letter of the alphabet to friends with "Ecrasez l'infame" (beat out the infamy — the Christian faith). His pamphlet, The Sermon on the L (1762) went after transubstantiation, miracles, biblical contradictions, the Jewish religion, and the Christian God. Voltaire wrote that a true god "surely cannot have been built-in of a girl, nor died on the gibbet, nor exist eaten in a piece of dough," or inspired "books, filled with contradictions, madness, and horror." He also published excerpts of Testament of the Abbe Meslier, by an atheist priest, in Kingdom of the netherlands, which advanced the Enlightenment. Voltaire's Philosophical Lexicon was published in 1764 without his name. Although the commencement edition immediately sold out, Geneva officials, followed by Dutch and Parisian, had the books burned. Information technology was published in 1769 as ii large volumes. Voltaire campaigned fiercely against civil atrocities in the name of faith, writing pamphlets and commentaries almost the barbaric execution of a Huguenot trader, who was commencement broken at the wheel, and then burned at the stake, in 1762. Voltaire's entrada for justice and restitution concluded with a posthumous retrial in 1765, during which 40 Parisian judges declared the defendant innocent. Voltaire urgently tried to save the life of Chevalier de la Barre, a 19 year old sentenced to death for irreverence for failing to remove his hat during a religious procession. In 1766, Chevalier was beheaded afterwards being tortured, then his torso was burned, forth with a re-create of Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary. Voltaire's statue at the Pantheon was melted down during Nazi occupation. D. 1778.
Voltaire (1694-1778), pseudónimo de François-
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